The Truce of Calais () was a truce agreed by King

Edward III of England Edward III (13 November 1312 – 21 June 1377), also known as Edward of Windsor before his accession, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from January 1327 until his death in 1377. He is noted for his military success and for restoring ...

and King Philip VI of France on 28 September 1347, which was mediated by emissaries of

Pope Clement VI Pope Clement VI ( la, Clemens VI; 1291 – 6 December 1352), born Pierre Roger, was head of the Catholic Church from 7 May 1342 to his death in December 1352. He was the fourth Avignon pope. Clement reigned during the first visitation of the Bl ...

. The Hundred Years' War had broken out in 1337 and in 1346 Edward had landed with an army in northern France. After inflicting a heavy defeat on Philip and a French army at the

Battle of Crécy The Battle of Crécy took place on 26 August 1346 in northern France between a French army commanded by King PhilipVI and an English army led by King EdwardIII. The French attacked the English while they were traversing northern France du ...

the English besieged Calais, which fell after 11 months. Both countries were financially and militarily exhausted and two

cardinals Cardinal or The Cardinal may refer to: Animals * Cardinal (bird) or Cardinalidae, a family of North and South American birds **''Cardinalis'', genus of cardinal in the family Cardinalidae **''Cardinalis cardinalis'', or northern cardinal, the ...

acting for Pope Clement were able to broker a truce in a series of negotiations outside Calais. This was signed on 28 September to run until 7 July 1348. Edward suggested extending the truce in May 1348, but Philip was keen to campaign. However, the effects of the Black Death, which spread to both kingdoms in 1348, caused the truce to be renewed in 1348, 1349 and 1350. While the truce was in effect neither country campaigned with a full field army, but it did not stop repeated naval clashes nor fighting in Gascony and

Brittany Brittany (; french: link=no, Bretagne ; br, Breizh, or ; Gallo: ''Bertaèyn'' ) is a peninsula, historical country and cultural area in the west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known as Armorica during the period ...

. Philip died on 22 August 1350 and it was unclear whether the truce then lapsed, as it had been signed on his personal authority. His son and successor,

John II John II may refer to: People * John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg (1455–1499) * John II Casimir Vasa of Poland (1609–1672) * John II Comyn, Lord of Badenoch (died 1302) * John II Doukas of Thessaly (1303–1318) * John II Komnenos (1087–1 ...

, took to the field with a large army in south-west France. Once this campaign was successfully completed John authorised the renewal of the truce for one year to 10 September 1352. English adventurers seized the strategically located town of

Guînes Guînes (; vls, Giezene, lang; pcd, Guinne) is a commune in the northern French department of Pas-de-Calais. Historically it was spelt ''Guisnes''. On 7 January 1785, Jean-Pierre Blanchard, a French pioneer in hydrogen-balloon flight, comple ...

in January 1352, causing full-scale fighting to break out again, which went badly for the French. Intermittent peace negotiations continued but were fruitless until 6 April 1354 when a new truce and an outline permanent peace

treaty A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between actors in international law. It is usually made by and between sovereign states, but can include international organizations, individuals, business entities, and other legal pe ...

were agreed as the

Treaty of Guînes The Treaty of Guînes (, ) was a draft settlement to end the Hundred Years' War, negotiated between England and France and signed at Guînes on 6 April 1354. The war had broken out in 1337 and was further aggravated in 1340 when the Eng ...

. But John subsequently turned against it, deciding another round of warfare might leave him in a better negotiating position. The French planned an ambitious series of offensives for the 1355 campaigning season and repudiated the Treaty of Guînes early in the year. Yet another extension to the Truce of Calais was agreed, until 24 June, when it finally expired. The war resumed in force in October 1355. In September 1356 the French royal army was defeated by a smaller Anglo-Gascon force at the

Battle of Poitiers The Battle of Poitiers was fought on 19September 1356 between a French army commanded by King JohnII and an Anglo- Gascon force under Edward, the Black Prince, during the Hundred Years' War. It took place in western France, south of Poit ...

and John was captured. In 1360 the fighting was brought to a temporary halt by the

Treaty of Brétigny The Treaty of Brétigny was a treaty, drafted on 8 May 1360 and ratified on 24 October 1360, between Kings Edward III of England and John II of France. In retrospect, it is seen as having marked the end of the first phase of the Hundred Years ...

under which large areas of France were ceded to England. In 1369 large-scale fighting broke out again and the Hundred Years' War did not end until 1453, by which time England had lost all its territory in France other than Calais.

Background

Since 1153 the English Crown had controlled the

Duchy of Aquitaine The Duchy of Aquitaine ( oc, Ducat d'Aquitània, ; french: Duché d'Aquitaine, ) was a historical fiefdom in western, central, and southern areas of present-day France to the south of the river Loire, although its extent, as well as its name, fluc ...

, which extended across a large part of south-west France. By the 1330s these holdings had been reduced to Gascony. A series of disagreements between France and England regarding the status of these lands culminated on 24 May 1337 in the council of the French king, Philip VI, declaring them forfeit. This marked the start of the Hundred Years' War, which was to last 116 years. In 1340 the English king,

Edward III Edward III (13 November 1312 – 21 June 1377), also known as Edward of Windsor before his accession, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from January 1327 until his death in 1377. He is noted for his military success and for restoring ...

, as the closest male relative of Philip's predecessor Charles IV, laid formal claim to the Kingdom of France. This permitted his allies who were also

vassal A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain ...

s of the French crown to lawfully wage war on it, although Edward was not fully committed to this claim. In 1340 Edward campaigned against an army led by Philip in northern France. This ended with the agreement of the Truce of Esplechin in September by which the two kings agreed to cease hostilities for five years. The truce broke down within a year, although for several years subsequent fighting was largely limited to

and Gascony. In 1346 Edward raised an army in England and the largest fleet ever assembled by the English to that date, 747 ships. The fleet landed on 12 July at St. Vaast la Hoguein northern

Normandy Normandy (; french: link=no, Normandie ; nrf, Normaundie, Nouormandie ; from Old French , plural of ''Normant'', originally from the word for "northman" in several Scandinavian languages) is a geographical and cultural region in Northwestern ...

, from

Cherbourg Cherbourg (; , , ), nrf, Chèrbourg, ) is a former commune and subprefecture located at the northern end of the Cotentin peninsula in the northwestern French department of Manche. It was merged into the commune of Cherbourg-Octeville on 28 Feb ...

. The English army is estimated by modern historians to have been some 10,000 strong; it achieved complete strategic surprise and marched south. Edward's soldiers razed every town in their path and looted whatever they could from the populace.

Caen Caen (, ; nrf, Kaem) is a commune in northwestern France. It is the prefecture of the department of Calvados. The city proper has 105,512 inhabitants (), while its functional urban area has 470,000,stormed and sacked. On 7 August, the English reached the

Seine ) , mouth_location = Le Havre/Honfleur , mouth_coordinates = , mouth_elevation = , progression = , river_system = Seine basin , basin_size = , tributaries_left = Yonne, Loing, Eure, Risle , tributarie ...

, south of

Rouen Rouen (, ; or ) is a city on the River Seine in northern France. It is the prefecture of the Regions of France, region of Normandy (administrative region), Normandy and the Departments of France, department of Seine-Maritime. Formerly one of ...

, and raided up to its suburbs. Philip, under pressure from representatives of

, sent envoys offering peace backed by a marriage alliance; Edward replied that he was not prepared to lose marching time to futile discussion and dismissed them. The English then left a swath of destruction, rapine and slaughter along the left bank of the Seine to

Poissy Poissy () is a commune in the Yvelines department in the Île-de-France region in north-central France. It is located in the western suburbs of Paris, from the centre of Paris. Inhabitants are called ''Pisciacais'' in French. Poissy is one of ...

, from

Paris Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), making it the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2020. S ...

Map of the route of Edward III's chevauchée of 1346

The English turned north and became trapped in territory which the French had denuded of food. They escaped by fighting their way across the Somme against a French blocking force. Two days later, on 26 August 1346, fighting on ground of their own choosing, the English inflicted a heavy defeat on the French at the

. The English continued to devastate the land and set several towns on fire, including

Wissant Wissant (; from nl, Witzand, lang, “white sand”) is a seaside commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Hauts-de-France region of France. Geography Wissant is a fishing port and farming village located approximately north of Boulog ...

, the normal port of disembarkation for English shipping to north-west France. Outside the burning town Edward held a council, which decided to capture Calais; an ideal

entrepôt An ''entrepôt'' (; ) or transshipment port is a port, city, or trading post where merchandise may be imported, stored, or traded, usually to be exported again. Such cities often sprang up and such ports and trading posts often developed into co ...

into France from an English point of view, possessing a secure harbour and established port facilities and being in the part of France closest to the ports of south-east England. It was also close to the border of

Flanders Flanders (, ; Dutch: ''Vlaanderen'' ) is the Flemish-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, ...

and Edward's Flemish allies. The English arrived outside the town on 4September and besieged it.

Siege of Calais

Calais was strongly fortified. It was also surrounded by extensive marshes, some of them tidal, which made it difficult to find stable platforms for trebuchets and other artillery capable of breaching its walls. Calais was adequately garrisoned and provisioned, and could be reinforced and supplied by sea. Two

cardinal Cardinal or The Cardinal may refer to: Animals * Cardinal (bird) or Cardinalidae, a family of North and South American birds **''Cardinalis'', genus of cardinal in the family Cardinalidae **''Cardinalis cardinalis'', or northern cardinal, the ...

s representing Pope Clement travelled between the armies, but neither king would speak to them. Philip vacillated: on the day the siege of Calais began he disbanded most of his army to save money, convinced Edward had finished his raid and would proceed to Flanders and ship his army home. On 9September Philip announced that the army would reassemble at

Compiègne Compiègne (; pcd, Compiène) is a commune in the Oise department in northern France. It is located on the river Oise. Its inhabitants are called ''Compiégnois''. Administration Compiègne is the seat of two cantons: * Compiègne-1 (with 19 c ...

on 1October, an impossibly short interval, and then march to the relief of Calais. Even though only 3,000 men-at-arms had assembled at Compiègne by 1 October the French treasurer was unable to pay them. Philip cancelled all offensive arrangements on 27 October and dispersed his army. Recriminations were rife: officials at all levels of the (the French treasury) were dismissed and all financial affairs were put into the hands of a committee of three senior abbots. The King's council bent their efforts to blaming each other for the kingdom's misfortunes. Philip's heir, Duke John, fell out with his father and refused to attend court for several months. Joan II, Queen of Navarre, daughter of a king of France (

Louis X Louis X may refer to: * Louis X of France, "the Quarreller" (1289–1316). * Louis X, Duke of Bavaria (1495–1545) * Louis I, Grand Duke of Hesse (1753–1830). * Louis Farrakhan (formerly Louis X), head of the Nation of Islam {{hndis ...

), and previously a partisan of Philip, declared neutrality and signed a private truce with the English. Siege of a city, medieval miniature

Between mid-November and late February Edward made several attempts to breach the walls of Calais with

trebuchet A trebuchet (french: trébuchet) is a type of catapult that uses a long arm to throw a projectile. It was a common powerful siege engine until the advent of gunpowder. The design of a trebuchet allows it to launch projectiles of greater weigh ...

s or cannon and to take the town by assault; all were unsuccessful. During March and April, more than of supplies were run into Calais without opposition. Philip attempted to take the field in late April, but the French ability to assemble their army in a timely fashion had not improved since the autumn and by July it had still not fully mustered. Taxes proved ever more difficult to collect. Several French nobles sounded out the idea of switching their allegiance to Edward. Inconclusive fighting occurred in April and May: the French tried and failed to cut the English supply route to Flanders, and the English tried and failed to capture

Saint-Omer Saint-Omer (; vls, Sint-Omaars) is a commune and sub-prefecture of the Pas-de-Calais department in France. It is west-northwest of Lille on the railway to Calais, and is located in the Artois province. The town is named after Saint Audomar, ...

and

Lille Lille ( , ; nl, Rijsel ; pcd, Lile; vls, Rysel) is a city in the northern part of France, in French Flanders. On the river Deûle, near France's border with Belgium, it is the capital of the Hauts-de-France Regions of France, region, the Pref ...

. In June the French attempted to secure their flank by launching a major offensive against the Flemings; this was defeated at the Battle of Cassel. In late April the English established a fortification on the end of a spit of sand to the north of Calais, which enabled them to command the entrance to the harbour. In May, June and July the French unsuccessfully attempted to force supply convoys through. Despite increasing financial difficulties, the English steadily reinforced their army through 1347, reaching a peak strength of 32,000. More than 20,000 Flemings were gathered less than a day's march from Calais. 24,000 sailors, in a total of 853 ships, supported this force. On 17 July Philip led the French army north. On 27 July the French came within view of the town, away. Their army was between 15,000 and 20,000 strong; a third of the size of the combined English and Flemings, who had prepared

earthworks Earthworks may refer to: Construction *Earthworks (archaeology), human-made constructions that modify the land contour * Earthworks (engineering), civil engineering works created by moving or processing quantities of soil *Earthworks (military), m ...

and

palisade A palisade, sometimes called a stakewall or a paling, is typically a fence or defensive wall made from iron or wooden stakes, or tree trunks, and used as a defensive structure or enclosure. Palisades can form a stockade. Etymology ''Palisade' ...

s across every approach. The English position clearly being unassailable, Philip finally admitted the Pope's representatives to an audience. They, in turn, arranged talks, but after four days of wrangling, these came to nothing. On 1August the garrison of Calais, having observed the French army seemingly within reach for a week, signalled they were on the verge of surrender. That night the French army withdrew. On 3 August 1347 Calais surrendered. The entire French population was expelled. Edward repopulated the town with English and a few Flemings. As soon as Calais capitulated, Edward paid off a large part of his army and released his Flemish allies. Philip in turn stood down the French army. Edward promptly launched strong raids up to into French territory. Philip attempted to recall his army, setting a date of 1September, but experienced serious difficulties. His treasury was exhausted and taxes for the war had to be collected in many places at sword point. Despite these exigencies, ready cash was not forthcoming. The French army had little stomach for further conflict and Philip was reduced to threatening to confiscate the estates of nobles who refused to muster. He set back the date for his army to assemble by a month. Edward also had difficulties in raising money, partly because of the unexpected timing of the need; he employed draconian measures, which were extremely unpopular. The English also suffered two military setbacks: a large raid was

rout A rout is a panicked, disorderly and undisciplined retreat of troops from a battlefield, following a collapse in a given unit's command authority, unit cohesion and combat morale (''esprit de corps''). History Historically, lightly-equi ...

ed by the French garrison of Saint-Omer; and a supply convoy en route to Calais was captured by French raiders from

Boulogne Boulogne-sur-Mer (; pcd, Boulonne-su-Mér; nl, Bonen; la, Gesoriacum or ''Bononia''), often called just Boulogne (, ), is a coastal city in Northern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department of Pas-de-Calais. Boulogne lies on the ...

Truce

Philip VI

The two cardinals acting as papal emissaries from Pope Clement had been attempting to negotiate a halt to hostilities since July 1346, with no success. Given the military misfortunes and financial exhaustion of both sides, they found willing listeners in early September 1347. The principle of a temporary

ceasefire A ceasefire (also known as a truce or armistice), also spelled cease fire (the antonym of 'open fire'), is a temporary stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions. Ceasefires may be between state act ...

was agreed and the cardinals drew up its detailed terms. These strongly favoured the English and confirmed their possession of all their territorial conquests in France and Scotland; the Flemish were confirmed in their ''de facto'' independence from France; and Philip was prevented from punishing those French nobles who had conspired, or even fought, against him. The truce was to run to 7 July 1348. On 28 September the truce was formally signed. It was named after the place it had been agreed and signed at: the Truce of Calais. In November 1347 the French Estates General met and railed against the truce. In May 1348 Edward suggested extending the arrangement, but Philip refused; he was already raising an army in anticipation of the agreement's expiration. However, during 1348 the Black Death spread north across France, reaching Paris in August and becoming widespread in London by November. The plague was to eventually cause the death of approximately 45 per cent of the population of each country and it brought military preparations to a halt. In late August representatives of the two kings met in Boulogne and began negotiations for an extension of the truce. On 13 November it was extended until 1 September 1349. The following year it was extended to May 1350 and in June 1350 once again extended to August 1351. In practice, while the truce was in effect neither country campaigned with a full field army, but it did not stop the ongoing naval clashes between the two countries nor the fighting in Gascony and Brittany.

John II

Philip died on 22 August 1350 and it was unclear whether the truce then lapsed, as it had been signed on his personal authority. His son and successor,

, declined to clarify the situation while taking to the field with a large army. A French offensive in Gascony in south-west France made good progress in 1351 and the English response was ineffectual. While this was happening negotiations to renew the truce opened at

, south of Calais, on 7 July, but made slow progress. Eventually, a modification of the original treaty was agreed upon, but the French delayed signing it. Once their campaign in the south west was successfully completed John authorised the new truce, which was formally agreed on 11 September to last one year. As ever, the truce was patchily observed, with the fighting in the south west hardly abating. When English adventurers seized the strategically located town of Guînes in January 1352, full-scale fighting broke out again. This did not go well for the French; money and enthusiasm for the war ran out and state institutions ceased to function. Encouraged by the new pope, Innocent VI, negotiations for a permanent peace treaty opened at Guînes in early March 1353. These broke down and on 8 May the French cancelled the truce and announcing an for Normandy, a formal call to arms for all able-bodied males. The negotiators met briefly in Paris on 26 July and extended the truce until November, although all concerned understood that much fighting would continue.

Treaty of Guînes

French central and local governments collapsed. French nobles took to violently settling old scores rather than fighting the English.

Charles of Navarre Charles of Navarre or Charles d'Albret (12 December 1510, Pau - September 1528, Naples) was a prince of Navarre. Charles was a member of the Albret dynasty and one of the youngest children of the Navarrese monarchs Catherine and John III. On t ...

, one of the most powerful figures in France, broke into the bedroom of the

Constable of France The Constable of France (french: Connétable de France, from Latin for 'count of the stables') was lieutenant to the King of France, the first of the original five Great Officers of the Crown (along with seneschal, chamberlain, butler, and ...

, Charles of Spain, and murdered him as he knelt naked, pleading for his life. Navarre then boasted of it and made tentative approaches to the English regarding an alliance. Navarre and John formally reconciled in March 1354 and a new balance within the French government was reached; this was more in favour of peace with England, in some quarters at almost any price. Informal talks started again at Guînes in mid-March. The principle whereby Edward abandoned his claim to the French throne in exchange for French territory was agreed; Edward gave his assent to this on 30 March. Formal negotiations recommenced in early April. Discussions were rapidly concluded. The truce was extended for another year and the broad outline of a permanent peace was agreed. On 6 April 1354 these

heads of terms A set of heads of agreement, heads of terms, or letter of intent is a non-binding document outlining the main issues relevant to a tentative sale, partnership, or other agreement. A heads of agreement document will only be enforceable when it is a ...

were formally signed by the representatives of both countries as the

. The prolongation of the truce was to be immediately publicised, while the fact that the outline of a peace treaty had been agreed was to be kept secret until 1 October, when Innocent would announce it at the

papal palace Palace of the Popes may refer to: * Apostolic Palace, Vatican City State – the pope's residence since the return from Avignon in 1377 * ''Domus Sanctae Marthae'', Vatican City – also known as Saint Martha's House, the Vatican hotel where Pope ...

Avignon Avignon (, ; ; oc, Avinhon, label=Provençal dialect, Provençal or , ; la, Avenio) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Vaucluse Departments of France, department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region of So ...

. In the same ceremony English representatives would repudiate the English claim to John's throne and the French would formally relinquish sovereignty over several provinces in south-west France to the English. Edward was overjoyed, the

English parliament The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England from the 13th century until 1707 when it was replaced by the Parliament of Great Britain. Parliament evolved from the great council of bishops and peers that advised ...

ratified Ratification is a principal's approval of an act of its agent that lacked the authority to bind the principal legally. Ratification defines the international act in which a state indicates its consent to be bound to a treaty if the parties inte ...

the treaty sight unseen. John also endorsed the treaty, but members of his council were less enthusiastic. The English adhered to the truce. John of Armagnac, the French commander in the south west, ignored his orders to observe the peace, but his offensive was ineffective. Details of how much of the treaty was known to the French ruling elite and their debates regarding it are lacking, but sentiment was against its terms. In August it was revealed that several of the men who had negotiated and signed the treaty had been deeply involved in the plot to murder Charles of Spain. At least three of John's closest councillors fled his

court A court is any person or institution, often as a government institution, with the authority to adjudicate legal disputes between parties and carry out the administration of justice in civil, criminal, and administrative matters in accordance ...

or were expelled. By early September the French court had turned against the treaty. The date of the formal ceremony in Avignon was cancelled, with uncertainty as to when, or if, it would be rescheduled.

Collapse of the truce

In November 1354 John seized all Navarre's lands, besieging those places which did not surrender. Planned negotiations in Avignon to finalise the details of the treaty did not take place in the absence of French ambassadors. John decided another round of warfare might leave him in a better negotiating position and the French planned an ambitious series of offensives for the 1355 campaigning season. The French ambassadors arrived in Avignon in mid-January 1355, repudiated the previous agreement and attempted to reopen negotiations. The English and the Cardinal of Boulogne pressed them to adhere to the existing treaty. The impasse continued for a month. Simultaneously the English delegation plotted an anti-French alliance with Navarre. By the end of February, the futility of their official missions was obvious to all and the delegations departed with much acrimony. Their one achievement was a formal extension of the ill-observed truce to 24 June. It was clear that from then both sides would be committed to full-scale war. In April 1355 two papal emissaries appealed to Edward and his

council A council is a group of people who come together to consult, deliberate, or make decisions. A council may function as a legislature, especially at a town, city or county/shire level, but most legislative bodies at the state/provincial or natio ...

to extend the Truce of Calais once again, but they were rebuffed and the agreement finally lapsed.

Aftermath

The war resumed in force in October 1355, with both Edward and his son,

Edward the Black Prince Edward of Woodstock, known to history as the Black Prince (15 June 1330 – 8 June 1376), was the eldest son of King Edward III of England, and the heir apparent to the English throne. He died before his father and so his son, Richard II, su ...

, fighting in separate campaigns in France. In September 1356 the French royal army was defeated by a smaller Anglo-Gascon force at the

and John was captured. In 1360 the fighting was brought to a temporary halt by the

, which largely replicated the Treaty of Guînes, with slightly less generous terms for the English. By this treaty large areas of France were ceded to England. In 1369 large-scale fighting broke out again and the Hundred Years' War did not end until 1453, by which time England had lost all its territory in France other than Calais. Calais was finally lost following a siege in 1558.

Notes, citations and sources

Notes

Citations

References

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Calais, Treaty of Treaties of the Hundred Years' War Ceasefires 1340s in France 1347 in France 1350s in France 1340s in England 1347 in England 1350s in England 1347 in Europe 1340s treaties